CORRUPTION: DEFINITIONS, THEORIES AND CONCEPTS IYANDA DAVID O. BABCOCK UNIVERSITY, ILISHAN REMO,OGUN STATE, NIGERIA ABSTRACT Corruption, some people believe is becoming a culture but this paper admits that it is a culture in Nigeria and in other parts of the world as well. Moreover, there is a fatality per accident rate which can be 20 times higher than in developed countries (Jacobs and Sayer, 1983). Roberts, H., Smith, S. and Bryce, C. (1995) Children at Risk? In common with other African systems of belief about disease causation, the Yoruba believe that some diseases (such as malaria) have a simple, natural cause and others have supernatural causes (Ayoade, 1979; Oladepo and Sridhar, 1987; Ramakrishna et al., 1989; Moloye, 1992). There is also a role for urban planning, which is often lacking in Nigeria (Nkambwe, 1985). Tones, K., Tilford, S. and Robinson, Y. Of the 54 accidental deaths, 31 (57%) were caused by RTAs. Newsl Inter Afr Comm Tradit Pract Affect Health Women Child. (1991) Safety and accident preventative measures—the experience of the Bendel Line. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. B. and Brieger, W. R. (eds), 25 Years of the Ibarapa Community Health Programme. If it is not safe, the babalawo may ask for a sacrifice to be made, for example, of a chicken; `as soon as you make the sacrifice the road is clear for you, so that's it'. The stress on the importance of individuals taking control of their lives, of being `empowered' and directing their lives from within rather than seeing themselves as controlled by external forces is at odds with a number of other `ways of seeing', which dispute that it is the case that one can take charge of one's own destiny, or indeed, that this is desirable.  |  Road accidents have been recognized as a major public health problem in Nigeria for some time (Asogwa, 1978). Failure to entice people to become involved is often seen as a reason not to pursue particular programmes, sometimes to the detriment of that community. Routledge, London. So the accident has been prevented. PIP: The influence of cultural perception of causation, complications, and severity of childhood malaria on determinants of treatment and preventive pathways. This clearly, however, is dependent upon resources. (1962) Oludumare: God in Yoruba Belief. causation in Nigeria seems to be giving way to the biopsy- ... (2004). As countries experience the `epidemiological transition' with a relative decline in infectious diseases, accident rates tend to increase, particularly road traffic accidents. In India, Mohan (Mohan, 1984) estimated that only one-third of deaths from injuries were recorded in official statistics. These fundamental theories are likely to have a strong influence on the health behaviors of many patients/families served by CCHAP practices. Routes linking major metropolitan centres, such as the Ibadan–Lagos Expressway, are particularly dangerous. Other harmful practices are purging of infants to get rid of impurities "they might have swallowed while in the uterus;" uvulectomy in infants, and induction of postpartum hemorrhage to clear the uterus of impure blood. This type of analysis has led to the production of the idea that health promotion is involved in a battle for the hearts and minds of the population, a struggle between a modern belief in lifestyle and an atavistic culture of `fatalism'. Medical students, who had worked in accident and emergency facilities, felt that the Yoruba belief in predestination was a `major problem' in relation to accident prevention work and that education was needed. In summary, this contemporary health promotion discourse is predominantly Western and secular, and possibly sits uneasily with other liberal values such as respecting other people's cultural sensitivities. It is impossible to estimate what percentage of deaths and injuries appear in the `official' statistics above for Igbo-Ora. (1985) Education and inequality in Botswana. An orthodoxy has developed [see Davison et al., p. 26 (Davison et al., 1997)]: ...the `locus of control' trend in psychology has operated within an ideological perspective which takes as axiomatic that belief in individual control is `correct', while belief in other agencies requires some kind of rectification (usually education). Search for other works by this author on: Effectiveness of pictographs in improving patient education outcomes: a systematic review, Parenting style as longitudinal predictor of adolescents’ health behaviors in Lebanon, Getting the right message: a content analysis and application of the health literacy INDEX tool to online HIV resources in Australia, Is type of practice setting associated with physician’s cultural competency training? Understanding a disease concept as a causal structure like that shown in figure 1 is consistent with aspects of prototype and exemplar theories of concepts. Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago. (eds), Accident Control and Safety Measures in Mass Transit Operations in Nigeria. The miasma theory (also called the miasmatic theory) is an obsolete medical theory that held that diseases—such as cholera, chlamydia, or the Black Death—were caused by a miasma (μίασμα, Ancient Greek for "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air", also known as night air.The theory held that epidemics were caused by … Thus Smith and Barss, p. 259 (Smith and Barss, 1991), assert that `Injuries are no longer considered accidents or acts of God, and can be subjected to epidemiologic study like that conducted with other health conditions'. 2009 Autumn;(91):12-3. There are major questions regarding who carries out the research and this author is well aware of the issues in researching African culture as a non-African (Dixey, 1985). 257–262. There are measures which can be taken, however, to reduce accidents and their effects, and people's beliefs should not be taken to mean that they are satisfied with the status quo. (Davison et al., 1991). Washing one's ori/head was an important ritual and potions were available also to rub onto one's ori. The `belief that it is possible to be in charge of one's life' [see Tones et al., p. 13 (Tones et al., 1990)] is a key value of the modern health promotion movement. 1995. The notion of producing culturally sensitive health education materials and strategies is well accepted, but there seems to be little recognition of the extent to which the entire health promotion movement represents a particular way of looking at the world. Of the 54 deaths, 16 (nearly 30%) were aged 16 or less, 16% were over 60, and the remainder, 54%, were between the ages of 17 and 60. (ed. It is frequently stated in the literature that many developing countries have insufficient data on accidents (Jacobs and Sayer, 1983; Mohan, 1997). These beliefs raise complex questions for the health promoter intent on preventing accidents or minimizing their effects. Owonikoko KM, Tijani AM, Bajowa OG, Atanda OO. Injuries from road traffic accidents (RTAs) are the most significant problem, so much so that motor vehicle-related mortality has been described as a `disease of development' (Wintemute, 1985). The rising concern about unintentional injury rates is evidenced by the WHO setting up a special office to co-ordinate its global injury epidemiology and prevention programme. In modern literature, we see a debate among scholars about the applicability of the causation or effectuation approach. However, predestination does provide one explanation for misfortune, including accidents and a reason not to take precautions. Focus groups were carried out with 20 medical students and tape recorded. healing traditions of a given culture. This review explores the socio-cultural factors influencing prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) service uptake in Nigeria. Like process theories, ‘mechanistic’ accounts of causation also seek to identify causation with the process by which the cause produces the effect (Glennan, 1996; Machamer et al., 2000; see Williamson, 2011 for a survey). (1991) Unequal Risks: Accidents and Social Policy. TBAs and healers have stated that there is severe bleeding after circumcision, sometimes so severe that it leads to death. the programmes of economic reform imposed by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, and the hardship these have led to for ordinary people) were mentioned by several contributors to the Accident Control Workshop held in Lagos in 1991 (Bolade and Ogunsaya, 1991) as contributing to the accident rate. In Bolade, T. and Ogunsaya, A. The latter include sorcery, witchcraft and `spirit … It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, This PDF is available to Subscribers Only. His account followed closely that found in the literature above. In criminal law, it is defined as the actus reus (an action) from which the specific injury or other effect arose and is combined with … In this study, we describe perceptions of the aetiology of UI among women in a Nigerian … Afolabi, O. Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents, London. Udomah and Edafiogho, p. 94 (Udomah and Edafiogho, 1990), say of police records in Nigeria, `Regrettably, published statistics may be unsatisfactory from the research standpoint because of incomplete reporting, inaccuracies, varying definitions of accident and injury, and, perhaps most significantly, the production of data for highly specific purposes'. An exploratory study was carried out to establish the feasibility of developing a research proposal into accident prevention in south-west Nigeria. ... Familial ec trodactyly sy ndrome in a Nigeria n child: a case rep ort. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! University of Liverpool. Lay theories of schizophrenia: A . Iyang, E. E (1991) Measures of reducing accidents and improving productivity—the experience of Inyang Ette Motors Ltd. 24–32. Such a focus may well be more useful for health planners than the one that emphasizes the differences between African and biomedical notions of causation. Each person has an ori (loosely translated as `head' but also as destiny), chosen for him or her. This definition derives from Goodenough’s 8 definition of culture as that knowledge that one must possess to function adequately in society, but it incorporates as well recent insights from … `Community participation' is clearly an attempt to ensure that the health promotion agenda is not simply imposed, but that people are consulted and involved to varying degrees. PIP: Nigeria has a rich cultural heritage. What then are the potential strategies for tackling accidents, presuming that it is morally indefensible simply to ignore them? Admission to three health care facilities for unintentional injuries. It may be possible, however, to pursue engineering and enforcement measures, and those which generally help to provide a more `supportive environment' in ways which are neither paternalistic nor unacceptable to the people. The exploratory study was carried out in Igbo-Ora, a Yoruba town of 30 000 people in the southwest of Nigeria that is particularly well documented as it has been the location for the Ibarapa Community Health project, established by University College Hospital, Ibadan, since 1976.  |  The absence of effective anti-snake venom was a significant problem. A number of ways forward are suggested. Routledge, London, pp. It can be argued that this is the case among the Yoruba. From anecdotal evidence it would seem that there may be a tendency to treat home and farm accidents within the home, whereas road accident victims are more likely to be taken to the clinic. Jimoh's study (Jimoh, 1985) of attitudes to death of 245 Nigerian university students show that the majority thought that death, including after an injury, was caused by the `work of wicked people', the gods or other forces. This deprives the girl of education and results in teenage pregnancy. Davison et al. In the Western worldview, an Act of God is a label applied only when all `rational' explanations have been exhausted. commun.). Igodan, V. O. L, Katz, J. and Peberdy, A. Zed Books, London. The latter include sorcery, witchcraft and `spirit instructions'. Slim disease: a new disease in Uganda and its association with HTLV-III infection. Macmillan, London, pp. Newsl Inter Afr Comm Tradit Pract Affect Health Women Child. (1989) Survey of apprenticeship in Igbo-Ora, project report submitted to the Department of Preventive and Social medicine, University of Ibadan, 1985. Ibadan University Press, Ibadan, pp. As I will show later, similar theories of causation link burial practices to outbreaks. had had accidents during their training (Osinubi et al., 1985). Health Education Authority, London. Analysis from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. There is widespread use of traditional healers and sometimes villagers go to the clinic or hospital only when other remedies have failed. Ibadan University Press, Ibadan. Sahdev et al. Use of Safety Pin on Garments in Pregnancy: A Belief and Cultural Practice with Potential Harmful Effect. There is, however, a paucity of data on women's understanding of the cause of UI from a social and cultural perspective. Thus, Tones et al., p. 55 (Tones et al., 1990), note. Health promotion is therefore faced with a dilemma. Many negative practices exist, most of them affecting the health of children and women. Thus in their review of successful interventions to prevent injury in developing countries, Forjuoh and Li, p. 1551 (Forjuoh and Li, 1996), assert that, `The lack of knowledge about the causes of injury, along with the low level of education in many countries...has resulted in people's adherence to the fatalistic theory of injury as acts of God'. Also one sees that Nigeria as a country is made up of people from different ethnic groups and cultural practices with the dominant groups being Igbos, Yorubas and Hausas. Open University Press, Buckingham. AIMS Public Health. Whilst it is true that the statistical picture is incomplete, it could be argued that some reduction in accident rates can be achieved by applying what is already known (Jacobs, 1982; Forjuoh and Li, 1996). (eds), Accident Control and Safety Measures in Mass Transit Operations in Nigeria. The positive functions of a fatalistic worldview are seldom mentioned, but, as Abimbola comments, `By shifting the responsibility for human failure or success largely from human beings, this concept frees them from any sense of guilt and dependency which usually causes psychological disturbances' [see Abimbola, p. 34 (Abimbola, 1975)]. R. A. Dixey, `Fatalism', accident causation and prevention: issues for health promotion from an exploratory study in a Yoruba town, Nigeria , Health Education Research, Volume 14, Issue 2, April 1999, Pages 197–208, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/14.2.197. Some traditional umbilical cord care practices in developing countries. Likewise, several of the victims of snake bite, burns and other injuries were in hospital for several days if not weeks before death. Female circumcision and vaginal mutilation and also common in Nigerian culture. The data from the death records does include information on how long the individual was hospitalized before death. In Nigeria they have been described as an `important cause of morbidity', with the need for a `comprehensive accident prevention programme' (Onadeko, 1983). One health worker explained that more people were turning to the babalawo for help, just as more people were turning to traditional sources of water, such as ponds, once the wells had dried or collapsed due to non-maintenance. Twenty informal interviews were carried out with local people at their homes; this was a purposive sample and all the respondents were women, as data were also being collected on reproductive health. The role of international consultants in transport issues has been questioned (Farahmand-Razai, 1994) and Mohan (Mohan, 1997) calls for `a much larger group of committed professionals' rather than `roving experts' to enable the transfer of technical expertise between less industrialized countries. Thus it is possible to create safer environments without consulting the public whose safety is being protected. a certain Data were collected opportunistically. (eds), Debates and Dilemmas in Promoting Health: A Reader. There would seem to be considerable scope for reducing the consequences of accidents, such as improving emergency services and better care after an accident. Many of the `answers' to road safety were present in theory at the training workshop on `Accidents and Safety Control of Mass Transit Operations in Nigeria' held in 1990 in Benin City (Bolade and Ogunsanaya, 1991). In common with other African systems of belief about disease causation, the Yoruba believe that some diseases (such as malaria) have a simple, natural cause and others have supernatural causes (Ayoade, 1979; Oladepo and Sridhar, 1987; Ramakrishna et al., 1989; Moloye, 1992). Data extracted from the death records held at the public hospital in Igbo-Ora for 1988–92 are shown in Table I. Low-cost remedial engineering measures have shown promise in developing countries (Jacobs and Sayer, 1983). Thus if roads are made safer through engineering measures, fewer casualties result than if there were reliance, for example, on pedestrian or driver education. In other words, causation provides a means of connecting conduct with a resulting effect, typically an injury. After all, what is … This study further underscores the need to incorporate folk theories of disease causation, gender and malaria issues into malaria control strategies in order to improve their coverage and effectiveness in different contexts. Unintentional injury rates in developing countries have increased to become a significant cause of premature death and morbidity (Bradley et al., 1992; Zwi, 1993; Murray and Lopez, 1994). All entries relating to unintentional injuries were extracted for 1 year, from March 1993 to March 1994. Western secular health promoters may need to recognize that some accidents are indeed Acts of God or of gods, `witchcraft', sorcery or are predestined to happen—in other words to accept the reality of a worldview based on another cosmology. This can lead to different patterns of health-seeking and prevention, as well as mismatched provision of care.4 – 6 Second, cultural habits and practices can protect against, modify or create novel vectors for transmissible disease through, for example, eating culturally preferred raw or undercooked food,7 8 hygienic … Bastian has written of the complexity of ideas about roads and pathways in colonial times as well as today, and of the Nigerian fascination with the evils on the road; `Most of the people I knew agreed that night-time travel in Nigeria was tantamount to suicide because of all the dangerous forces, material and otherwise, that made their way along the darkened roads' [see Bastian, p. 102 (Bastian, 1992)]. (eds), Accident Control and Safety Measures in Mass Transit Operations in Nigeria. Ayoade, J. More research could usefully be carried out on the cultural significance of roads. Six babalwos (traditional priests) were visited and interviewed, with one taking us through the ritual of a consultation. Get the latest public health information from CDC: https://www.coronavirus.gov, Get the latest research information from NIH: https://www.nih.gov/coronavirus, Find NCBI SARS-CoV-2 literature, sequence, and clinical content: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov-2/. HMSO, London. There is, however, the beginning of a close and critical scrutiny of health promotion discourse (Bunton et al., 1995; Sidell et al., 1997). 125–128. This exploratory study into an important problem has highlighted the complexity of carrying out health promotion work in the accident prevention area. The aim was to talk to key informants—health workers and people in the community—to gain a picture of the perception of accidents as a public health problem, of accident causation and of what people thought could be solutions, in order to see what issues there might be in taking health promotion interventions forward. It has more than 250 ethnic groups with different cultural practices. Trading is a central part of Nigerian culture and traders travel large distances to markets, particularly to the `inter-kingdom periodic markets' (Mills-Tettey and Fadare, 1991).  |  60–69. This author is referring to Nigeria, which has one of the worst accident records in the world (Asogwa, 1992). Some background to Yoruba beliefs is necessary before discussing the comments of the study participants. It may be a case too, that effective treatments are not available for other types of injury. Psychosocial and cultural factors associated with the management of spina bifida cystica in Nigeria. This shows that only 10 of the RTAs died before reaching hospital; the others arrived alive. Bastian (Bastian, 1992) notes that death is `rarely seen as natural in any Nigerian culture'. Basically, the causation approach is advocated by people who believe that the environment is largely predictable and that research, analysis and planning lead to rational decision processes and optimal outcomes. In Western countries, there has been recognition that measures which require no action from the potential victims or perpetrators of accidents are superior to those which rely on education of that victim or perpetrator. Okolie, p. 210 (Okolie, 1995), has described the Nigerian `state's increasing incoherence and loss of autonomy (leading) to more confusion, uncertainty, unpredictability, corruption and worsening conditions of life of most of the people'. Traditional beliefs are perhaps becoming more important again in times of relative economic decline and political uncertainty. Socialist Health Association, London. In other words a person who believes that life's choices are governed by the vagaries of fate or determined by a conspiracy of powerful others and faceless organizations will be less likely to mobilize the personal resources needed to face a potentially threatening situation. The dominant discourse of contemporary health promotion tends to see fatalism as atavistic and unhelpful. HHS Of all road deaths occurring globally each year, 74% are in developing countries and there has been a 5-fold increase in traffic-related deaths in Nigeria over the last 30 years (Odero et al., 1997). Health Promotion, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK. eCollection 2017. Nigeria reached a certain level of development where, for example, fast, straight roads were built, but vehicle maintenance and enforcement of regulations have not kept pace (Asogwa, 1992). about theories as well as lack of information about technics which should be used let program planners and leaders to avoid behavior change theories (Corcoran 2013; Webb, Sniehotta & Michie 2013.) Of the 63 RTAs, 31 involved adult males (49% of total), 14 female adults (22%) and 19 (30%) were aged 16 or less, with equal numbers of boys and girls involved. (eds), African Therapeutic Systems. Needless to say, such research needs to be qualitative (Ramakrishna and Brieger, 1987). Although a focus on RTAs is essential [by 1982 these accounted for 10% of deaths between the ages of 5 and 44 in 11 developing countries (Jacobs and Sayer, 1983)], for children, the role of domestic accidents is also crucial. Bunton, R., Nettleton, S. and Burrows, R. (1995) The Sociology of Health Promotion. The other main causes were snake bites (seven deaths), gun shot wounds (two deaths) and electric shock (two deaths). The death of many Nigerians is believed to be caused by forces outside the deceased. Oludamare, the creator of life, seals people's fate before they come into the world. Locals are presumed to subscribe to alternative disease models rooted in “traditional healing,” believe in sorcery or the … Davison, C., Frankel, S. and Davey Smith, G. (1997) The Limits of Lifestyle: re-assessing `fatalism' in the popular culture of illness prevention. Responsible for one admission each were: dog bite, multiple injury, food poisoning, flesh wound, kerosene ingestion and fell on to aluminium. Judging Causality An observed statistical association between a risk factor and a disease does not necessarily lead us to infer a causal relationship; conversely, the absence of an … PhD thesis. Cultural beliefs on disease causation in the Philippines: challenge and implications in genetic counseling. (1990) Health Education: Effectiveness and Efficiency. ...if individuals perceive themselves as `copers'; if they believe that they are in control of their lives and have the capacity to act logically and decisively, then their chance of adopting a given health action which they believe is sensible is that much greater than those having a different self-concept. (eds), Accident Control and Safety Measures in Mass Transit Operations in Nigeria. The data may under-represent particular types of accident, such as fractures, which may be taken to a bone setter. Although some of these solutions have been applied with success to less developed countries, there are also good reasons why such solutions are ineffective when tried in a different context. Among the Yoruba, there is a need to investigate the local terms for accidents, such as ijamba, which has a range of connotations. Notwithstanding these difficulties, what data there are indicate a worsening situation and an increasing fatality rate per accident (Asogwa, 1992; Oluwasanmi, 1993). Legislation does not seem to be very effective. Bezzaoucha, A., Dekkar, N. and Ladjali, M. (. Bastian, M. (1992) The world as marketplace: historical, cosmological, and popular constructions of the Onitsha market system. Women and children are exposed to many unhealthy practices in the name of tradition or culture. Forces outside the deceased of wearing safety helmet or something like that does n't before. In pregnancy: a Belief and cultural factors associated with the dominant within. To improvements having been made in developed countries, it may be the most severe this shows only. Other theories, including Evolution, Relativity and non-Malthusian population ecology, were and. What percentage of deaths from injuries were recorded in official statistics their relatives centres, such needs. 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